Chapter Three 

                                        THE CARDINAL LAWS OF SYSTEMS DIALECTICS

The world is made up of matter, the material world of systems, and the whole moves and develops following inherent laws. This view has. been proved by all new scientific achievements and essential theories in the modern world and is continuously understood in practical reality. Based on materialistic dialectics, systems dialectics makes further study of the global nature of interconnection and interaction in the systematic material world. It discloses the inherent source, the ultimate cause, the fundamental state and the main tendency of development of the systematic material world, it also reveals the universal laws governing the development of nature, society and man's thinking. These laws include the law of the optimization of wholeness, the law of qualitative change in structure, the law of the transformation of hierarchies and the law of the synergism of differences.


                                                           Section One 

                                          THE LAW OF HOLISTIC OPTIMIZATION

The law of the optimization of wholeness is the fundamental law of systems dialectics. Based on the wholeness of systems, it reveals the tendency and the direction of motion of the system, covering interconnections among inherent essential elements which constitute the system. Wholeness is the essential attribute of system. The wholeness defined here is not the mechanical sum of parts; instead, it means the organic interconnection and interaction of all parts and the reciprocity of all processes in the system. Optimization is the tendency and the direction of the motion of the system--and even the whole objective world. It is a lofty goal that human beings continuously strive for to optimize all structures and functions of systems in society. Things are always developing from a lower level to a higher one. And it is tile universal and inexorable law for objective things to assume an optimal state, an optimal process and an optimal function as the result of their internal properties combined with the optimum conditions. This is what the law of the optimization of wholeness means in systems dialectics. 


                                                     I. Principles of the Law

The law of holistic optimization is based on several cardinal principles. Among them, the most important are the principle of the wholeness of the system, the principle of optimization and the principle of the whole being more than the sum of its parts.

(i) The Principle of the Wholeness of the System
Classical Marxist authors critically and materialistically inherited the rational kernel of the dialectics of Hegel, and scientifically clarified the conception of wholeness in the system. In Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy, Engels made an analysis of the history of development of natural science. He pointed out that the world is organically connected and a unified whole, thus the nature of natural science is "a science of the processes, of the origin and development of these things and of the interconnection which binds all these natural processes into one great whole" (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 4, p. 241 ). That points to the fact that all things in the objective world--from nature to human society--are a unified wholeness composed of various elements reciprocally connected in a certain form.

There are four bases for the contents of the principle of wholeness in systems dialectics:

First, the wholeness of a system is fundamental, and the parts in a system presuppose a substratum for the whole. The whole has no reality apart from the parts. The unified whole exists in a process in which all the parts, subject to the whole, interconnect, interact and interchange with each other.

Second, each part in a system plays its specific role following the objective of the whole system. The quality and function of each part in the system are determined by its position in the system as well as its qualitative determinant. Its behavior or action is subject to the relationship between the whole and the parts.

Third, the whole of the system is a comprehensive body composed of matter, energy and information. The inherent structure of the whole consists of essential elements, hierarchic levels and intermediaries.

Fourth, both the whole and the parts of a system have their mode of existence in motion, flux and development. The change of parts is subject to the connections in the whole and the change of the whole is completed in the interconnections of all partial changes.

In a word, the whole of a system, no matter what it is, has the nature of wholeness, i.e., it is the unity of interconnections of the whole.

Apart from the unity of interconnections of the whole, there is a common attribute in the principle of the whole of the system, the organicity of the whole.

First, only by existing in the whole can each part demonstrate its partial meaning in the whole; once divorced from the whole, the part will lose its meaning. As Hegel put it: "a severed hand is no longer a hand." The organic whole embodies and reflects the relationship between the whole and the parts. The parts, all the essential elements of the whole, possess the properties and the inherent substratum constituting the whole of the system.

Second, concerning the property as a whole possessed by the essential elements of the system, only through exchanging information, energy and matter between the whole and the parts, between different parts, between the whole and its environment, and also between different levels following certain laws. is it possible for the whole of the system to present or embody the properties governing the quality and function of a certain structure. In addition, the exchange must be within a demarcation which preserves the whole. The elements in a system can, in motion, display their own properties constituting the whole, if the exchange of information, energy and matter is partly or completely damaged when the whole is in motion the system will lose its original wholeness.

Third, the organic whole is also expressed in its relationship with the external environment. The continuous connection of the system process in time represents the organic combination with the surroundings, the whole and all elements in the whole of the system and also in the process of development. Any system is an element in a larger system, thus forming the properties constituting the larger system. The whole of a system is an organic combination and a dialectical unity of the whole, the elements and the environment. This means that the whole, the elements and the environment cannot constitute a system without organicity. In addition, the higher the degree of organicity, which is the degree of structural order in the whole, the better the order will be arranged in the whole. Otherwise, the system will be in disorder or chaos. With the upgrading of the degree of organicity in the system, the whole of the system will develop from low to high.

To sum up, the principle of the wholeness of the system intimates the fact that all elements follow certain rules to constitute the organic whole. As parts of the whole, the elements' interconnection and interaction with the whole, with the environment and between themselves lend certain systematic quality and function to the whole which are not possessed by any individual element in the system.

(ii) The Principle of the Optimization of System
Doubtless, it is of greater significance for systems dialectics to raise the disclosure of intrinsic quality and the property of the optimization of system to the level of study of the law of the optimization of wholeness. Here, optimization refers to the whole of the system which has a tendency and direction of motion from lower to higher, and from simple to complex. Optimization is objective, relative and conditional. All these characteristics must be kept in mind in order to keep optimization within its defined limits.

The objective foundation of the optimization of system lies in the fact that optimization prevails throughout reality, which has been proved by various subjects. First, it is necessary to affirm that a quality or state of optimization exists in all natural processes, social processes, thinking processes and systems. Second, the state and process of optimization in nature, society and thinking are understandable. Third, whether optimization will be actualized or not is subject to various restraints. The inherent determinant of optimization refers to a whole system or a certain aspect of a system in nature, society and thinking which will, under certain conditions, approach or meet a given objective criterion to the maximum (or the minimum) owing to interaction between its inherent determinants and conditions. Various material systems are in a state of perpetual motion as well as an exchange of matter, energy and information. In the optimal conditions in which the system exists, all of them will achieve a perfect state of structure, select the shortest route of motion, or present perfect particular quality and function. Each system will try to actualize the state of optimization or the developing process of optimization in different ways. These are the cardinal contents of the principle of optimization.

The key to grasping the principle of optimization in reality lies in understanding the objectivity, relativity and conditionality of optimization. The objectivity of optimization means the criterion with which to distinguish whether a system will optimize or not is objective, not subjective. Compared with the same objective criterion, various forms and processes in a system will obtain different results; among those there must be at least one closest to or most appropriate for a given criterion. This is called the optimization result.

It is the foundation of the concept of value in systems dialectics. The optimization of a system is objective, provided that the criterion for comparison is objective. Optimization is determined by the inherent difference of structure and function and imbalance of motion in the system. It has objective contents independent of human will.

The relativity of optimization means optimization makes sense only when it is compared with a given criterion. And the criterion is selected following the requirements of certain inherent laws, the constraints of internal and external conditions or its probability. It also refers to the optimization of a certain object, not all objects, or optimization of one or some aspects compared with a given criterion, in addition, optimization of an object is not fixed and unchanging. Instead, it varies with the change of time, space, and internal and external conditions. Optimization which exists in flux is a dynamic optimization. And optimization of one aspect implies non-optimization of other aspects. Optimization and non-optimization are relative; they coexist in comparison with each other.

If the conditionality of optimization means that to actualize optimization there must be certain conditions, especially the optimum ones. The actualization of optimization is the result of a combination and reciprocal adaptation to external conditions, especially the optimum conditions and the internal connections. It is fulfilled in the unity of the inherent determinant and external conditions. The system may fail to optimize if it only has the inherent determinant but is without the necessary external conditions, or if it only has the external optimum conditions but is without the inherent determinant.

It is possible to optimize the whole of a system if the principles of wholeness and optimization are grasped properly.In the meantime, close attention must be paid to the objectivity, relativity and conditionality of optimization.

(iii) The Principle of the Whole Being More Than the Sum of Its Parts
In the systematic material world, the hologram of the unit element is the substratum of systems development. The quality and function of the whole system are much more than those of the sum of its parts, owing to organic connection and ordered structure in the elements and on the system levels. So when the system is under self-organization, self-reproduction and self-catalysis, and is receiving feedback and exchanging mass, energy and information with its environment it may move and develop toward decreasing entropy and increasing order, in the end, it will gradually arrive at the optimum state of the whole system. That is what Hegel and Aristotle meant when they talked about "thesis, antithesis and synthesis" and "movement of the whole." In Hegel's view, the third category, synthesis, is the truth of the two former categories. He stressed that the truth is the comprehensive result. Aristotle's well-known saying that "the whole is more than the sum of its parts" also expresses this idea. Generally speaking, four kinds of relations exist between the whole and its parts. They are: The function of the whole is greater than that of the sum of its parts; the function of the whole is less than that of the sum of its parts; the function of the whole is beyond the reach of all of its parts; the function of the whole is equal to that of the sum of its parts if the coefficient of interaction is so minute that it can be ignored, if the whole system is in the first or third relationship it is in the stage of optimization. If the system is in the second or fourth relation there is no doubt that it is still subject to the law of the optimization of wholeness. When the system is equal to or less than the sum of its parts it is still subject to the law of the optimization of wholeness and may move in the following three directions: First, the whole system, which is in the stage of degradation, may, under the interaction of the inherent laws of the system and the external conditions, regulate its structures, discard some of the degrading genes of the elements in the system, and supplement new ordered structures, which will lead the whole system into a new stage of optimization in a new ordered structure. Second, the whole system may, under the interaction of its inherent laws, as well as other laws and the external conditions, re-arrange its structures and discard all degrading genes of elements in the system. This will help the whole system form a new ordered structure and arrive at a new stage of optimization. Third, the whole system may break up and make way for a newer and larger system under the interaction of the objective laws, the inherent determinant and external conditions. As a result, a new systematic whole and a new optimization will be created. Here it is necessary to make it clear that the optimization or degradation of the elements are quite different from those of the whole system. The optimization will surely replace the degradation, thus resulting in the optimization of wholeness. A perpetually degrading system does not exist; rather, it is common that the optimization of wholeness is frequently disturbed by degrading elements. Brightness and darkness will alternate forever. This is a prerequisite. However, brightness will certainly replace darkness in our world outlook, and the opposite cannot occur. Thus we use the law of the optimization of wholeness to disclose the inner interconnection and development of the objective world in order to obtain knowledge and recreate the world.

The wholeness of system generally assumes the optimum state in the following situations: First of all, the system is in a much better state of wholeness when the surroundings are in a dynamic balance, or to be exact, all sub-systems or elements coordinate synergically with each other. The dynamic force in a system rests on the resultant of forces which result from a natural combination of all elements in the system. For example, when a person is in the prime of life he is in a stage characterized by stable internal conditions. Also, his metabolism remains constant, so the person is in the best state of health. Second, when the coefficient of interaction in the material system is at its maximum, and the function of feedback is brought into full play, the wholeness of the system is in the best state. The system of a well-trained army is the best example. Third, when the quality of a whole system mainly rests on the sequence, the whole has a greater benefit. For example, when socialism is in its primary stage it mainly depends on optimizing the economic structure, industrial structure and product structure and the administrative structure of enterprises to increase economic benefits. Another example is the hardness of a diamond, which depends on its own structure. Optimization of the whole structure is a prerequisite for the design of motor vehicles, ships and space shuttles. And rational combinations of leaders and talented people also determine whether or not the function of the whole of a government can be brought into full play. In addition, the whole structure of the municipal system and the national economic system has a great impact on the economic and social benefits in a local area. When the system passes the optimum stage, the whole of the system begins to decline and degrade. Once the old unity disappears a new one is generated. In analyzing the transformation process of the material system, it is much more simple and proper to use the concept of contradiction, since contradiction is obviously and sharply exposed in this process. Examples include the War of Resistance Against Japan and the Liberation War in China, the Second World War, the struggle of the proletariat for political power in the middle of the 20th century, the initial stage of cell division and the breakup of the internal environment in an elderly person. However, even in such situations, the system will be transformed only by means of an intermedium (or the area of dual values, divergence or convergence ).

The principle of the whole being more than the sum of its parts, the principle of wholeness and the principle of optimization all express the cardinal intention and radical contents of the law of the optimization of wholeness. The law of the optimization of wholeness shows the main tendency and direction of systems development. It is the objective reality that the whole of the system is sometimes equal to or less than the sum of its parts, and is in the stage of degradation. This is just a temporary phenomenon. !n certain conditions of time and space the whole of a system will, under the interaction of inner structure and the control of other environmental elements, develop toward optimization in which the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. That is an objective law independent of human will.


                                                II. Universality of the Law

The law of optimization of wholeness, as a radical law in systems dialectics, originates in nature, human society and the science of thinking.

In the system of celestial bodies, each galaxy has its own distribution, structure, mode of existence and orbit. It evolves following the law of the optimization of wholeness. An example is the solar system. The sun is at the center of the stellar sphere with gross mass radiating light and heat. The nine major planets revolve around the sun on the same plane, in the same direction, at their own speed and in elliptical orbits. All planets, except Jupiter and Venus, have their own satellites, minor planets and comets revolving around them. Such a phenomenon is a kind of optimization of the whole in accordance with the law of universal gravitation, in the system of the geological sciences the rational and ordered sequence of the global structure, such as the earth's core, mantle, earth's crust, hydrosphere, biosphere and intelligence sphere are the optimization of a whole. The alternation of spring, summer, autumn and winter and the geographic distribution of the continents and the oceans are also included in this category. In the system of natural sciences, the perfect gas, the absolutely black body, the ideal experiment, the inertial system, various critical points and balancing states in physics are part of the optimization of a whole concerning their own objective function. In the periodic table in chemistry there exist the strongest metal and non-metal and the weakest metal and non-metal in each period, and their chemical properties differ greatly from each other. This also presents the optimization of all elements. In biology, natural selection and the survival of the fittest theories proposed by Darwin were the result of the optimization of wholeness. A question may arise: is the extinction of the dinosaurs included in the optimization of a whole'? !f we take dinosaurs as a closed system, their extinction was a kind of degradation, even the degradation of the whole. But if we take dinosaurs as one of the elements in nature we can see that their extinction made it possible for other animals and plants in nature to exist and develop. This is the optimization of the whole in nature. The extinction of the dinosaurs resulted from the interaction between natural law, its inherent substratum and external conditions. If dinosaurs had freed themselves from the constraint of the natural law and survived, there would have been a degradation of the whole in nature.

In the system of human society, relative to the historical process of development, social progress demonstrates the optimization of the whole. The development starts from primitive society to slave society, from feudal society to capitalist society, and then to an even more advanced society.

In the development of man's thinking the method of single and double values has evolved into thinking in a systematic and dialectical way, which makes man's cognitive ability approach step by step the reality of the objective world. That is the optimization of the whole in terms of thinking methods.

The universal law of the optimization of wholeness does not preclude the possibility that, in the process of systems development, a certain fragmental element may undergo degradation for a short time and present such a state that the whole is less than the sum of its parts. Such a phenomenon has no impact on the universal law of the optimization of wholeness. As a radical law in nature, human society and thinking, the law of the optimization of wholeness plays the leading role in the developmental process. An individual's illness and death have no influence on the optimization of human beings as a whole. On the contrary, if we take a close look at the process of degeneration of human beings, we can discover the mechanism of degeneration and provide treatment. Then the optimization of the whole for human beings will be perfected. There is an old Chinese saying: "If three monks get together, they will have no water to drink" (Everybody's business is nobody's business.). Can this be called optimization of the whole'? The answer is no. Instead, it is the degradation of parts of elements, which is a temporary phenomenon. If we take the three monks as a closed system, in which none of them goes to fetch water, then they will die of thirst and the closed system will no longer exist. However, the objectivity of the law of survival in nature forces the three monks to question whether they would die of thirst or fetch water for survival. The answer, without doubt, would be the latter instead of the former; only by perfectly sharing the task among the three monks is it possible for them to have water to drink for survival. That is the optimization of the whole for this system, For the sake of survival, the three monks must make an effort to fetch water and try to prevent the following situation from occurring: one monk fetches water for himself; if there are two monks, they fetch water together; however, if there are three, none of them fetch water. The old Chinese saying precisely illuminates the objective reality of the law of optimization of wholeness from another aspect: The optimization of the whole is a relentless tendency of development.

The law of the optimization of wholeness comprehends the nature of difference and hierarchy, i.e., the optimization of the whole diversifies and changes in thousands of ways in its processes, in addition, congruity, integration, and synergy of differences and hierarchies will be demonstrated in the process of optimization of the whole. The nature of difference and hierarchy presupposes the optimization of the whole. Without difference there would be no optimization, synergy or optimization of the whole. The law of synergism of differences is the fundamental rule in the law of optimization of wholeness. Their contents are compatible, complementary and commutable, but each of them has its own boundary. In the objective world the law of the optimization of wholeness has the characteristics of practicality, subjectivity and activity, in addition, it has the qualities of objective reality, of the rational existence of principle differences and of the necessity of synergetic development. 


                                                 III. Development of the 
                                  Law of Negation of the Negation

The law of optimization of wholeness enriches and extends the law of negation of the negation. It highly generalizes the characteristics of evolution in the systematic material world, and sharply reveals the intrinsic quality of the objective world.

First, the law of the optimization of wholeness unfolds the self-perfecting process in the development of systematic things. The law of negation of the negation sheds light on the process in which things are elevated to an advanced stage after they go through double negations and two stages of transformation. Then the systematic things "seem" to "come back" to the first stage. To some extent, this reflects the self-perfecting process of things. However, according to the law of the optimization of the whole, in each stage the expressive form of things in space on the same hierarchic level can be taken as a whole. Each process of negation of the negation (i.e., the old whole making way for the new one and starting the next process of negation of the negation) forces the whole of things to be optimized more than once until the whole of the system is optimized. The stage of degradation follows the stage of optimization, and the process repeats itself in endless cycles to infinity. There is no exception to the law, either individually or in groups, in large or small cycles, micro or macro cycles. All form the hierarchic sequence of the optimization of the whole.

Second, the law of the optimization of wholeness reveals the multi-tendency and the net driving cause of the resultant of forces in the law of negation of the negation. It also reveals the fact that the motion of things is a systematic process, i.e., a complex process involving ordering, organizing, diversifying and optimizing, and the process is a unity of progress and regression. In addition, the law also manifests a transition from the disordered to the ordered, and from the unorganized to the organized. As a result, the system will be more ordered, organized, systematized, advanced, complicated and diverged. Here the process of divergence differs from the view of "one dividing into two," owing to its multi-tendency and non-linear nature. Divergence, on different levels, and from various aspects, lays open the nature of hierarchy, diversity, and optimization of the whole in the development of things. For example, the divergence of wheat grains takes place on the level of organism; in addition, the appearance of some types of other grains, or even a divergence of animal from plant is a quality-differed process of divergence in another direction. Such motion progresses from single system to a multi-system, from an inorganic system to an organic system, from a biological system to a social system or thinking system. As a result, the motions become more and more advanced, complex, systematized, and organized; in the end the optimization of the whole will be completed. It is the general tendency for all things to develop multi-directionally from a lower level to a higher level, making the whole gradually optimized more than once. Take the evolution of the earth's crust for example. The earth's crust at the bottom of the ocean forms and perishes alternatively, renewing itself continuously. At first, the high-temperature magma in the mantle constantly rises and spills in the central rift valley along the oceanic ridge, thus adding to the convection effect. The mantle then cools and hardens. The plastic silica-magnesian matter turns into a rigid crust in the ocean. The plate on the earth's crust optimizes itself through double negations and develops in spirals. This is the same process as the optimization of the structure of man's knowledge. Following the cycle optimization--degradation --optimization again, things progress and develop toward a more advanced level. The cause of development is not merely the two poles of negation and affirmation, but a multi-pole and the net driving cause of the resultant forces.

Third, the law of negation of the negation reveals the law governing the ordered connection in a state of equilibrium and within ordered bounds. However, apart from that, the law of the optimization of wholeness discloses the law governing the motion in which things progress from a disordered to an ordered form in disequilibrium. This upgrades the law of negation of the negation to the domain of disordered--ordered --newly disordered--newly ordered, which is a more extensive and penetrating domain than the former. This law plays an essential and leading role in the process of human understand- ing and recreation of the world.


                                     IV. The Fundamental Law of Systems Dialectics

The reason why the law of the optimization of wholeness is the cardinal law in systems dialectics lies in the fact that, as a thinking method, it starts from the meaningful whole and ends at effective and meaningful parts which constitute the whole. It contradicts the thinking method of absolute decomposition and absolute analysis. This is because the result of the latter is not a living "image of a whole," a living image of parts, or organic connections; rather, it is "a whole in which all parts are separated from each other." Since the system possesses a quality that its elements do not have, it is almost impossible to reveal the quality of a system merely by making a one-sided study of its elements. Analysis is necessary but not sufficient in clarifying the form and development of a system. The thinking method of taking the system as a whole particularly stresses that things are composed of various elements, and the inherent "substratum" of elements (and the system's structure) causes the change of things (or system) as well as directs the development of a system (things). As Engels said: "in this way, there would be innumerable crossed forces and innumerable parallelograms of forces, thus generating a total result.., a total resultant of forces" (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 4, pp. 478-479). The resultant of forces must lead to the optimization of the whole, which is called predetermination as well as the necessity for self-organization. All activities of man aim at optimizing various structures to complete the optimization of the whole. To destroy an old thing is to do no more than to accelerate the disintegration of the old and speed up the optimization of the new. There is no exception to this law in nature, human society, or in the domain of economy, productive forces, science, technology, culture or thinking. To seek the most rational structure is to maximize the benefit to the whole, and also to perfect the stability of the system. In both the biological and non-biological realms an unstable mode of existence is unable to compete for survival. Norbert Wiener holds that: "in the life phenomenon and the behavior phenomenon, what interests us is the relatively stable state, not the absolute one .... Or at least we may say that the change near these states is very slow. It is all those approximately equilibrium states, not real equilibrium states, that combine with the organic processes of life, thought and all the rest" (The Collected Works of Cybernetics Philosophy, 1965, pp. 60-61). This is one of the essential aspects which systems dialectics tries to disclose.


                                                      Section Two 

                                                       THE LAW OF 

                         QUALITATIVE CHANGE IN STRUCTURE

The law of qualitative change in structure enriches, extends and increases the law of the optimization of wholeness. It reveals the connection of the internal structures in the systematic material world, and states that both the motion and the development of systematic matter are expressed in the reciprocal transformation of structures and functions in a system. In addition, the connection between structures and functions in a system is a dialectical and developing process. The law of qualitative change in structure is both a universal law in the systematic material world as well as a cardinal law in systems dialectics. 


                                                   I. Basics of the Law

In systems dialectics all systematic matters comprehend certain structures and functions, and are the unity of structures and functions. Evidence shows that systematic matter without structures and functions does not exist.

The structure of a system is defined as the reciprocal connected form of elements in both time and space. As the inherent determinant, structure determines the characteristics of a system and distinguishes it from the rest. The reason why there are different kinds of systems in the world is because each system has structures different from those in other systems. The structure inherent in the inner part of a system is expressed through the functions and attributes of the system. And each function is manifested in the interaction between one system and others. The relationship and connection between one sys- tem and others must be comprehensively studied in order to completely understand the structure of a system. Take alcohol for example. It dissolves in water in any proportion; then it burns in fire and volatilizes in air. Another example is water. When water is electrolysed its structure is destroyed and its functions and attributes are lost. As a result, a new function depending on the new structure of oxygen and hydrogen will form.

On the other hand, elements in the same system may have different structures because of the diversities of motion in the system and the complexity of the connections in it. A diversified structure of the elements in the same system results in a diversity of function and attributes of the system. Structure is inherent in the systematic material world. The omnipresence of structure is proved by the structure of elementary particles in the micro-world, the structure of a celestial body in the macroworld, the economic structure and political structure in human society, and the structures of language and logical thinking.

According to systems dialectics, a certain systematic structure makes it possible for elements in sub-systems (which constitute the system) to play a role and function which they cannot perform individually. A given structure is equipped with a definite function and attribute. The same elements may constitute different systems, depending on their different structures. The rationality of the structure in a system may either accelerate or delay the progress of the system. Also, the systematic structure is relatively stable, but it may change because of the constant motion of elements and the impact of the external environment. Such changes automatically follow self-regulation within the system. Man can understand structures in a system and may consciously change some structures on the basis of the law of systematic matter itself. Human society can survive because the social structure can acclimatize itself to the pro- gress of productive forces and contain the functions that meet the needs of human life. Once the social structure fails to follow the progress of the productive forces, and its function cannot meets the need of human life, it will be remade or renewed through either reform or revolution in order to keep pace with the development of the productive forces.

Three factors decide the quality of structure in the system: the elements' quality, quantity and connecting mode, i.e., the order in time and space. These three factors play different roles in determining the quality of structure in a system. On the one hand, as a relatively independent factor, the quality of its elements stipulates the quality of the structure. Elements with different qualities may form different structures. On the other hand, the quantity of elements and their reciprocal interactions may possibly result in a difference in the quality of structures. Besides, change in the the connecting mode of the elements, i.e., the change of order in time and space, allows differences in the quality structures to interchange with each other. Thus it can be seen that the order of elements in time and space is a radical factor which may lead to qualitative change in structures in a system. Also, the constant change of various structures may change the quality of matter. This is a universal phenomenon existing in the development and change of all objective systematic matter. In systematic matter the quality and function of the whole system changes subsequent to the variation of the arranged order of elements and hierarchies. In general, there are three types of qualitative changes in structure: displacement of order, recombination of elements and changes in configuration.

There exist dialectical relationships between structure and function in a system. Structure may not be completely reduced to construction. However, it also includes the reciprocal inter- action and activities of elements and exchanges among matter, energy and information. Structure reflects the properties of systematic matter in both space and time. The elements, through structure, may constitute the whole of a system. The more rational a structure is, the more synergetic the reciprocal interaction of various parts will be in the system. As a result, the individual character will be maximized, and the function of the system will be optimized as a whole. In a sense, structure describes the quality of a system as a whole from the inner part of the system, and function describes the quality from the outside of the system. If structures are the same the functions may be different due to external conditions. In addition, if structures are different the functions may be similar. The method of function simulation is based on such similarity. For instance, a computer can replace part of a brain's function. If it were possible to use biological cells to simulate a human brain the function of a computer would improve greatly since the structures of biological cells are closer to those in the human brain than electron cells. The relationship between structure and function is relative and susceptible to change. Structure determines function; in turn, function reacts on structure, resulting in the coupling relationships in a system. The relation- ship between structures and functions in a system forms a multi-directional and non-linear network of causes and effects. The best example is graphite and diamonds. Their elements are all carbon atoms, but their physical and chemical properties are quite different from each other, because they depend upon different structures, i.e., different order in time and space. In human society, old Chinese sayings such as "If three monks get together, they will have no water to drink" and "Three cobblers with their wits combined equal Zhuge Liang the master mind" (Two heads are better than one), provide evidence for the importance of the structure. In a sense, when the impact of order is so minute that it can be neglected the qualitative change of matter will depend on the quantitative change. The qualities of matter may be similar, provided their structural forms are similar, even if their ingredients and quantities are different. For example, the atomic numbers of fluorine, chlorine, bro- mine, iodine and astatine are 9, 17, 35, 53, and 85, respectively, and they each have seven outer-electrons which make their structures similar. Therefore, their properties are similar, too. Another example is that two kinds of compounds exist with the same molecular formula C₂H₆O: ethyl alcohol and methyl ether. But their physical and chemical properties are quite different due to their different structural formulae.

The quality, quantity and organic combination of the sequence of elements can be called "the core of the structure." They coexist in a connected system, where none of them can play its individual role separately. Instead, they may play their parts through reciprocal interrelation, and causal and nonlinear resultants of forces. In the binary system of quality and quantity the role of sequence is frequently neglected. However, if there are two or more elements the role of the sequence will be so important that it cannot be neglected.

In recreating the objective world it is important for us to understand and distinguish between the quality, quantity and demarcation of different types of matter, and especially to comprehend the different structures of systematic matter. It is of epistemological significance to discern the determinant of the core of the structure in order to distinguish one system from another. If we do not remain attentive to the distinctions between quality, quantity and demarcation without considering first the distinction of structures we may not comprehensively and systematically understand the objective world. Therefore, it enriches and extends the law of the transformation of quantity and quality in materialistic dialectics to comprehend the reciprocal interrelation between inherent structures and functions in a system, and their interactions with the external environment.


                                           II. The Law of Qualitative Change 
                       in Structure and the Law of Exchange of Quality and Quantity
  
The law of qualitative change in structure has a relationship to and is distinguished from the law of exchange of quality and quantity, and vice versa. The law of exchange of quality and quantity, ' and vice versa, is a specific aspect of the law of the qualitative change in structure. Therefore, the law of the qualitative change in structure summarizes and extends the law of the exchange of quality into quantity. The categories of structure and quality and those of structural change and qualitative change expose things from different angles. Quality, corresponding with quantity, exposes the quality and the determinant of things which distinguish them from the rest. But structure, corresponding with function, exposes modes and the order of interactions among various differences in the system. Structure emphatically presents what the system is composed of, what kinds of modes and relationships exist when elements reciprocally interact, and further reveals the material foundation and the mode of existence of the system with certain attributes and functions. The two categories also have quite different contents. Quality is based on a certain amount of quantity, but it is not equal to the quantitative amount with regard to its correspondence to quantity. As for structure, it represents both the qualitative and the quantitative relationships of all elements, and also the arranged order, i.e., the order of quality and quantity of elements. Economic structure covers not only the combination of various qualitative components in sectors, such as production, exchange, distribution and consumption, but various quantitative relations, especially the arranged order and distribution of all economic sectors. The structure of H₂O indicates the qualitative combination of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, various quantitative relationships and order in both time and space.

Structure is closely related to quantity. Any structure is composed of certain quantitative elements. The quantity of structure is present in the scale, size and distance of elements in space, and the complexity of the structure. In nature the great varieties of living things are due to the diversified structures of nucleic acid and proteins, which then demonstrate the diversity of hereditary substance. As to social structure, population structure and education structure, there are also certain quantitative and proportional relationships among these factors. Qualitative changes in structure cannot occur independently of the quantitative changes. In the hydrocarbon series of an organic compound every increase in CH₂ will form various compounds containing different structures; CH₄, methane, combines with CH₂ to form C₂H₆, ethane; a combination with another CH₂  forms C₃H₈, propane. Of course, quantitative changes mean not only the addition or subtraction of various components or elements in the inner part of the structure, but also the change of scale and ordered degree of the existence and development of the structure and the distance between the elements in space. Take methane as another example. It contains the quantitative relationship of the hydrogen and carbon combined in its molecular structure as well as a series of quantitative characteristics corresponding to its tetrahedrite space structure, i.e., if the bond angles of the four valences in a carbon atom are equal, then all the chain lengths of hydrocarbons will be equal, too. Another example is that the change of the product structure in the enterprise covers both the change of products and reallocation of the output relationship. Structure and quantity do not mean the same in either intension or in extension. Quantitative change is the change in scale, speed and level of the mode of existence and development of things, including mass, energy and information in the reciprocal interaction of all elements in the structure. But structure means the modes of combination and interaction of all elements. Changes in structure involve quantitative change, qualitative change and change in order as well. For instance, in molecular structure the distance between each atom shows the quantitative relationship. However, different spatial configurations of atoms assume various qualitative relationships. The optical isomers in chemistry differ qualitatively from each other depending on their differently arranged order of genes in space. Pasteur, the 19th- century French chemist, found that when polarized light travels through tartaric acid the angles of rotation remain the same, but their directions are different; some rotate to the right and some to the left. The right and left asymmetry of an atom arrangement in the molecular structure, due to the various directions of motion, leads to different qualities. The differences in each atom's spatial configurations in a molecular structure result in different optical activities, which determine the different qualities of molecular structures.

From the above discussion it can be seen that the law of qualitative change in structure enriches, extends and increases the law of transformation of quantity into quality. ! will give a summary for further discussion:

First, the law of the qualitative change in structure extends the determinant which already exists in matter. Concerning the combination and arranged order, it reveals the qualitative and quantitative determinant of all elements in both time and space, thus it enriches the connotation of the concept of quality and quantity. The quality of matter is by no means the sum of its parts; instead, it is a kind of systematic structure shaped in a reciprocal interaction of elements, i.e., a structure with wholeness. Similarly, the quantity of matter is also not the simple sum of its parts, rather, it is the diversified quantitative relationships. Take the structure of the water molecule for example. It precisely shows the qualitative and quantitative relationship between hydrogen and oxygen elements and reflects the systematic structure of water. Apart from that, the structure also accurately displays the qualitative and quantitative differences of both the gaseous and solid molecules of water. Another example is the industrial structure of a city. The city is an organic whole composed of primary, secondary and tertiary industries in space, in time, it is constantly optimized and regulated in different stages of its development. As a result, the quality, quantity and order of the industrial structure will change, too. To some extent, the stability, equilibrium and development of the national economy rest on regulating the industrial structure. Function is the specific effect and capability expressed in reciprocal interactions between the structure within a system and its external surroundings. Since function is the result of the exchange of mass, energy and information of matter, the connotation of function includes the outward manifestation of quality--attribute, the effect as well as the quantitative relation found in interactions between a structure and its surroundings. Function also differs from attribute. Attribute corresponds to quality, and the total sum of attributes equals quality. A specific quality defines its corresponding attributes. However, function corresponds to structure. Matter performs its function on account of its specific structure. The category of structure and function enriches the determinant of matter, which is excluded from the category of quality and quantity. For example, in China, although the reform of structure in the system of ownership does not mean a fundamental qualitative change in socialism, it will cause the structure to adapt itself to the progress of the productive forces and a commodity economy, and will bring the advantages of the system of ownership under socialism into full play.

Second, the qualitative change in structure is both the foundation and substratum for the exchange of quality and quantity. The qualitative and quantitative changes of all things are closely connected with the changes in structure. Structure, from one aspect, reveals the internal mechanism of the exchange of quality and quantity. Function and quality depend on structure in systematic things. The theory of dissipative structure, proposed by Prigogine, shows that things are closely connected with the changes of structure in its process either from a chaotic state to an arranged order or from a thermodynamic equilibrium state to a disequilibrium state. When an open systematic structure is far from the thermodynamic equilibrium, and exchanges matter, energy and information with the environment, thus arriving at a specific threshold, quantitative change in the structure may turn into qualitative change. As a result, the thermodynamic equilibrium structure will turn into a new ordered dissipative structure. The quantitative addition of ingredients in matter involves a quantitative change in structure. When quantitative change exceeds the definition of the structure qualitative change occurs. Take the periodic table of chemical elements for example. The qualitative change of the elements, following the quantitative changes of the electric charges of the nuclei, will lead to the qualitative change in the electron structures outside the nuclei. In addition, each chemical property of an element can be traced back to the inherent structure. The diversity of the elements' properties fundamentally depends on the arrangement of electron structure in an atom. The change in structure may enhance or weaken the outward manifestation of the quality (attribute).

Third, the hierarchy of qualitative change in structure enriches the contents of the hierarchy in the law of the exchange of quality and quantity. It is a universal law for all systems to present a parallelism and a hierarchy in a structure which includes things in nature, human society and the system of thinking, in nature many solid elements have crystal structures arranged with regularity. Place a crystal in an X, Y or Z coordinate. The atoms will be parallel with each other in the X and Y coordinate, and the regular arrangement of the parallel atoms form the crystal plane. But in the Z coordinate many crystal planes will overlap hierarchically with each other, thus shaping the crystal. This is the parallelism and hierarchy in crystal structure. Compared with other systems in nature, the crystal is the simplest structure. However, its parallel and hierarchical configurations are also as complex as the most complicated systems in nature. The same is true with structure in a social system. In society an organization on a high level leads a group of lower parallel organizations, thus extending the levels in the system. But the system itself is also a subordinate system constituting a supraordinate system on a higher level. For example, in an enterprise, the level of company to plant to workshop to group to worker manifests the parallel and hierarchical structure. This analogy gives us an example of a complex social system with hierarchies.

In a system, structure prevails in both space and time coordinates. The structure of the universe in time refers to the history of the development of the universe. Similarly, the structure of society in time implies the history of development of society. So far, it is understood that there are three main hierarchical structures in the history of development of the universe, i.e., a non-living system, a living system and a social system. Basically the history of social development can be divided into five levels: primitive society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society and socialist society. Structure in time is the extension of structure in space. Concerning structure in time, the system possesses hierarchies, and the hierarchical structures interconnect. The system progresses from quantitative to qualitative changes, and each qualitative change results in a new hierarchical level. Time continues and has its own hierarchic levels. Its continuity depends on quantitative change, but its hierarchy depends on qualitative change. A structure in space is the trace of a structure in time, and also the trace !eft over by the progress of a system in time. Generally, all systems progress from smaller to larger in an unbalanced way, resulting in two types of traces: The trace left over by a system's progress from smaller to larger, and the hierarchical traces left over by an unbalanced development of the system. Many complex systems have both types of traces, or hierarchical structures.

A structure with infinite hierarchies which reside in matter shows the unity of relative inseparableness and the absolute separableness of matter, and the unity of the infiniteness of new qualitative contents and the finite quality of concrete form. Structure, as a dynamic process, evolves (and develops) and progresses from a lower to higher level, from a simpler to a more complicated level, presenting hierarchies in both time and space. In addition, structure is the mode of existence for the diversity of organic unity in things. The various reciprocal connections and interactions among elements in matter lead to different structures and hierarchies with diverse qualities. For example, corresponding to the basic motion of matter, the mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social forms coexist. Furthermore, the biological structure can be divided into several hierarchical levels, such as biosphere, group, biological individual, organ, tissue, cell, subcell, molecule and atom. The structure on a higher level contains structure on a lower level. However, the structure on a lower level, as an element, is an organic component of the higher structure. The hierarchy of structure scientifically reveals the universality and the infiniteness of motion and development in the material world, it also leaves open the qualitative differences and quantitative diversities in the world. Molecules, atoms, nuclei and elementary particles, as structures on a single level, all have independent specific qualities. The transformation of structures among different hierarchical levels means a qualitative change either for an atom, a nucleus or an elementary particle. This coincides with the firstand second-phase changes in physics. The phase change is a kind of qualitative change. The firstphase change refers to qualitative change in a molecular structure, while the second-phase change is qualitative change in an atomic structure. Therefore, the hierarchy of structure may also be the substratum for qualitative difference.

The law of qualitative change in structure discloses the fundamental mode and state of motion and development in systematic matter. There is no doubt that it greatly extends the law of exchange of quantity and quality.


                                        III. The Dissipative Structure of Systems

In systems dialectics the theory of dissipative structure is taken as an essential theoretical basis for the law of qualitative change in structure.

Systematic structures in the universe, including nature, society and human thinking, are all open systems reciprocally connecting, acting and changing with the environment. The open system is what the theory of dissipative structure mainly studies. Therefore, it is of both theoretical and practical significance to use the theory of dissipative structure to study the law of qualitative change in structure.

The dissipative structure is defined as an open system maintained at a distance from true equilibrium. When the changes in the external conditions arrive at a specific threshold the quantitative change may result in qualitative change. Following that, through continuously exchanging matter, energy and information with the environment, the system may automatically reorganize itself and force the sub-systems into non-linear interactions. As a result, the system approaches a time-independent steady state with ordered structure either in time, space or function. The newly ordered structure in a state of disequilibrium is called the dissipative structure. Since the dissipative structure exchanges matter, energy and information with the environment it is in disequilibrium, a dynamic, stable and ordered structure, it is full of vigor and vitality, and is a living" structure in perpetual motion compared with the equilibrium structure.

The theory of dissipative structure is a tool with which to analyze the systematic structure as well as to study the open or closed systems, which form structures and functions with different qualities. Here the analysis is made according to the theory of dissipative structure proposed by Prigogine and the synergetic theory of the Haken school.

There are three forms of relationship between system and structure: the isolated system, the closed system and the open system.

An isolated system does not exchange matter, energy and information with the environment, and cannot form a living and ordered structure. By virtue of the principle of entropic increase, i.e., the principle of irreversible entropic process in time, the system loses information and comes to a halt at a state of disorder or a state of' equilibrium. So the tendency toward maximum entropy or the most probable distribution is the tendency to maximum disorder and chaos. Actually, such a system exists only in a relative sense, as there is no absolutely isolated system in the world.

A closed system exchanges a little energy but does not transform matter with the environment. It cannot form a "living'' ordered structure; instead, it is an "inanimate" ordered structure.

An open system, remaining distant from the true equilibrium state, exchanges a great deal of matter, energy and information with the environment. With the presence of synergy of structures in the system the quality and quantity (presenting the feature of system) will arrive at a specific threshold value. As a result, a "living," highly stable and ordered dissipative structure will be generated. The purpose of the present reform of the economic system in China is to break up the isolated and closed economic system, and to establish an economic system with an open and dissipative structure in order to invigorate the country's economic development.

The magnitude of openness in the system determines the strength of the cooperative forces of the structure in the system. Since the open system continuously exchanges matter, energy and information with the environment a negative entropy will form in the system, which will result in helping all sub-systems cooperate synergetically. This is called the cooperative force. Ihe more frequently the system exchanges matter and energy with the environment the greater the negative entropy and cooperative force. Otherwise, the cooperative force will be reduced.

Synergetic forces perpetually reside in the structures of a system. The synergetic force may be positive, negative or neutral. When it is positive the synergetic force may help the structures and hierarchies in the system cooperate with each other and encourage the dissipative structure to take shape. When it is negative it may break up the synergy in the structure and lead the system toward a disordered and chaotic state. The more positive the synergetic force the easier will the system form a highly stable, ordered and "living" structure.

Once a dissipative structure is generated in an open system the system will have an anti-interference ability. The ordinary fluctuation will then be absorbed by the dissipative structure. This is called the principle of the fluctuation regression or the dissipative structure.

When an external sub-system interacts with the dissipative structures in a larger system, the external sub-system is not strong enough to make the dissipative structure break apart or disintegrate; instead, the subsystem is always engulfed in the dissipative structure and dissolved in the larger system. The original size of the system will increase but this will have no impact on the basic order of the dissipative structure. This is called the principle of the engulfment and dissolution of the dissipative structure.

In the transformation of the dissipative structures a sudden change either in or outside the system endangers the existing dissipative structure in the system. The regression ability in the dissipative structure may be not strong enough to resist such sudden change. Then a great fluctuation may lead to the disintegration or breakup of the existing dissipative structure, forcing the motion of the system to arrive at another threshold and form a new "living," stable and ordered dissipative structure. The new dissipative structure must be more synergetic and advanced compared with the original one. Following the irreversibility of time, such a process will repeat itself, leading the dissipative structure to optimization.

As the basis of the law of qualitative change in structure, the theory of dissipative structure involves many complex theoretical problems. What I have discussed above is just a brief introduction to help people understand the theoretical and practical significance of the law of qualitative change in structure.


                                                          Section Three 

                            LAW OF HIERARCHY TRANSFORMATION

As one of the cardinal laws in systems dialectics, the law of the transformation of hierarchy supplements and extends the law of the optimization of wholeness and the law of qualitative change in structure, it sheds light on the mode of existence of the systematic material world and the change of the hierarchical levels in a system, i.e., the systematic material world always moves and progresses by means of the transformation of hierarchies. Such progress is tortuous, and is the dialectical unity of progress and complications. Both the law of transformation of hierarchies and the law of qualitative change in structure, from different aspects, attempt to reveal the mode and course of motion and progress of the whole system.

Nature, human society and human thinking, as a large network system composed of different hierarchies, entirely constitute a concordant whole. Any system contains infinite subordinate systems. In the meantime, various hierarchical subordinate systems reciprocally connect, interact and interchange. This results in great varieties in the world. The law of the transformation of hierarchies generalizes the existing world from another angle, and is one of the cardinal laws describing the noumenon of the systematic material world.

The world is a systematic whole consisting of various hierarchical systems, i.e., the material world exists in the form of a system and infinite hierarchical levels prevailing throughout the systematic matter. A large system constituted of certain sub-systems involves hierarchical structures, or rather sub- systems, and must necessarily form a hierarchical system with definite levels. That is to say, systems are frequently structured in a way that their individual members again are systems of the next lower level. Such hierarchical structure and combination evolving into systems of ever-higher orders, is characteristic of reality as a whole. The hierarchies in the system are relative; they interchange with each other depending on the interactions. Any system is a set of certain elements or subordinate systems. It exists as a concentrated set of elements or a group of subordinate systems. The relationship between the elements and the system is "non-additivity." The elements on the same hierarchical level may have the same qualities. The levels in the system are relatively stable, but the hierarchical structures have modes of existence in constant motion and change.


                                I. The Objective and Universality of Hierarchies

In any system, the qualities of wholeness, structure, dynamism, openness and pre-determinativeness are all in hierarchical levels, which means they have the nature of hierarchy. By hierarchy we understand here the ordered interruption and continuity in a structure, or the order of the organic combination of the elements in a system. All systems-in the universe have modes of existence in hierarchical structures. Hierarchy results in differences as well as synergy among elements, and it only exists in things with differences and synergism. Hierarchy pertains to the synergy in differences and the differences in synergy. All systems inevitably progress from a lower level to a higher level; the lower level carries within itself the higher level and consolidates the foundation for the development of the higher level. In return, the higher level reacts on the lower and promotes its synergetic development. The higher level contains elementary characteristics inherited from the lower level, but it also possesses differences that the lower level does not have, which causes the system to move as a whole. The process of motion and progress in nature, human society and thinking all present the nature of hierarchy, and have their modes of existence, motion and development in the transformation of hierarchies.

In his Dialectics of Nature, Engels said, "The whole of nature accessible to us forms a system, an interconnected totality of bodies, and by bodies we understand here all material existences extending from stars to atoms, indeed right to ether particles, in so far as one grants the existence of the last named" (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 3, p. 492). Engels means here that "all material existences" constitute a system, "from stars to atoms" and "ether particles" means a series of hierarchical levels, which demonstrates the objectivity and universality of the existence of hierarchy in systems. From the classic Marxist authors it can be seen that the material world exists in a system with hierarchies. This is one of the intrinsic qualities of the objective world.

The achievements of modern science demonstrate that the world is nothing but a system with hierarchies, and the hierarchical levels in the system perpetually interact and interchange with each other. Many synthetical sciences such as systems theory, information theory, cybernetics theory, dissipative structure theory, and synergetics and mutation theory, all, from various aspects, cast light on the law of the transformation of hierarchies in the objective world. For example, cosmology proves that the universe is a large system with wholeness and hierarchy, and all hierarchical levels interact and change with each other. As for the chemical elements in the universe, the abundance of hydrogen and helium is the same; all anagalactic nebulae, radio sources and quasi-stellar objects display the red shift phenomenon, and the cosmic 2.7K microwave background radiation is isotropic. All these show that the universe is made up of a series of great hierarchical levels, and interaction and inter-transformation of all hierarchies result in celestial bodies at various levels.

In the biological system the growth, deterioration and dissolution of hierarchical levels presupposes the existence of each level. Concerning the organic body and social development, Marx commented, "Such an organic body, as an entity itself, has its own various prerequisites, and the development process of the body is to make all elements in society pertain to itself, or to create such organs. that it itself is wanting, in history, the organic body developed toward entity in this way. Changing into such an entity is a process, i.e., an element of its development" (Marx and Engels, Complete Works, Vol. 48, pp. 235-236).

As for the history of the development of society, the replacement of each society follows the law of the transformation of hierarchies, from a simple form to a complex one and from a lower level to a higher one. The process of thinking also adheres to this !aw: practice, cognition, repractice, and recognition.

In the large system of the objective world sub-systems coexist ~n tiers, and are varied and complex. Interconnecting, interacting and interchanging motions are found on different levels, between systems, in sub-systems and also between sub- systems. Each transformation of motion has a unique nature and common character, which determine the diversity and unity of the system. According to systems dialectics, it is necessary for us to understand the extraordinary nature and common character of the objective world, to comprehend the mode and way of the transformation of systems through hierarchical transformation in the system, and to try to learn the laws governing the world in order to further understand the world and change it for the better.

In the objective world the existence of hierarchy in a system is both universal and objective. It is the result of history and also progresses with the development of history. Innumerable expired hierarchical levels in a system are continuously passing away, and new hierarchical levels are perpetually forming, cycling and developing without end.


                           II. The Conservation Principle of Hierarchical Transformation

There are two forms of transformation of hierarchies in a system: "natural transformation "and "dynamic transformation.'' As Engels said, "In one point, however, the history of the development of society proves to be essentially different from that of nature, in nature--in so far as we ignore man's reactions upon nature--there are only blind, unconscious agencies acting upon one another and out of whose interplay the general law comes into operation" (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 4, p. 243). We call the interaction in nature "natural transformation," and the transformation in the social and thinking fields, including the transformation of practices and conscious activities "dynamic tansformation." In the view of Engels, "The earth's surface, climate, vegetation, fauna, and human beings themselves have infinitely changed, and all of this is owing to human activity" (Engels, Dialectics of Nature, p. 209). This shows that dynamic transformation is due to human activities under certain objective conditions in nature. With regard to transformation, Engels also made an incisive analysis. He pointed out, "The new outlook on nature was complete in its main features: all rigidity was dissolved, all fixed character 'dissipated, all particularity that had been regarded as eternal became transient, the whole of nature was shown as moving in eternal flux and cyclical course" (Engels, Dialectics of Nature, pp. 15-16). He also thought "that the whole of nature, from the smallest element to the greatest, from grains of sand to suns, from protista to man, has its existence in eternal coming into being and passing away, in ceaseless flux, in constant motion and change" (Ibid., p. 16). It can be seen that both "natural transformation" and "dynamic transformation" are objective and universal.

The conservation law is one of the universal laws which the transformation of hierarchy follows. The law of indestructibility of matter and motion dominates the process of transformation, and both quality and quantity remain, to some extent, unchangeable, i.e., no elements will either be lost or be created. As Engels said, "Matter remains eternally the same in all its transformations, and none of its attributes can ever be lost" (Ibid., p. 24). He also said, "The indestructibility of motion cannot be conceived merely quantitatively; it must also be conceived qualitatively" (Ibid., p. 22). He commented that the law of the conservation of matter was "the great fundamental law of motion." The law reveals the transformation and conservation of all motions, and is of universal significance.

The reasons and driving forces which cause the transformation of hierarchies in a system to follow the law of the conservation of matter are the interactions among hierarchies in a system, because "reciprocal action is the true causa finalis of things. We cannot go back further than to the knowledge of this reciprocal action, for the very reason that there is nothing behind to know" (Ibid., p. 209).

Conservation of hierarchical transformation in a system summarizes and abstracts the conservation of a series of transformations, such as conservation of quality, conservation of energy, conservation of momentum, conservation of moment of momentum, conservation of charge, conservation of baryon and conservation of lepton. It also reflects the transformation of hierarchies in nature, human society and thinking. Engels pointed out: "Dialectics, so-called objective dialectics, prevails throughout nature, and so-called subjective dialectics, dialectical thought, is only the reflection of the motion through opposites which asserts itself everywhere in nature, and which, by the continual conflict of the opposites and their final passage into one another, or into higher forms, determines the life of nature" (Ibid., p. 189). That means that the final result of transformation is "their final passage into higher forms."

The following summarizes the conservation of hierarchical transformation in systems dialectics:

First, the motions of hierarchies in a system transform in conservation and conserve in transformation.

Second, the cause and the driving force of hierarchical change in a system are interactions among matter, energy and information.

Third, the concrete forms of change and conservation of hierarchies in a system are manifold. The change can be divided into "natural transformation" and "dynamic transformation." It can also be divided into gradual change and sudden change, depending on the state. There are even more forms of conservation.

Fourth, Engels pointed to "a thing remaining the same and yet constantly changing, being possessed of the antithesis of 'inertness' and 'change'" (Marx and Engels, Complete Works, Vol. 20. p. 672). The transformation and conservation of hierarchies in a system is an expression of the law of the unity of opposites, or, more precisely, an expression of the synergism of differences.

Fifth, in the whole process of birth, growth and death of the hierarchies in a system, none of the attributes in the systematic matter is either lost or created. This is called the law of the conservation of the transformation of hierarchies in a system.

The transformation of hierarchies in a system also follows a cyclical law, i.e., it progresses in a cyclical manner. In his Dialectics of Nature Engels repeatedly stresses the idea of major cycles. He thought nature "has its mode of existence in flux, in constant motion and change," "It is an eternal cycle in which matter moves, a cycle that certainly only completes its orbit in periods of time for which our terrestrial year is no adequate measure, a cycle in which the time of highest development, the time of organic life and still more that of the life of beings conscious of nature and of themselves, is just as narrowly restricted as the space in which life and self-consciousness come into operation" (Engels, Dialectics of Nature, pp. 23-24). In the transformation of hierarchies in the system the concrete mode of existence of hierarchies is relatively transient, but tile hierarchies themselves and the law of their motion are eternal. Engels also emphasized that the cycle should not be understood as a simple circle going metaphysically round and round; instead, it is a developmental process, in his view, the perpetual cycle of (he motion of matter is "an infinite process of development," in which the process does not repeat itself; instead, it develops either forward or backward, and therefore, is the necessary mode of motion. Obviously, in the transformation of hierarchies in a system development can be either from the lower level to the higher or from the higher to the lower. Such mutual motions Form a certain periodic process, a mode of expression for the cyclical development of hierarchies in a system.

From the above discussion, it can be seen that the transformation of hierarchies is a cyclical and periodic process, as well as a historical process. The main development trend of hierarchies, which represent the intrinsic quality of things, is to progress in waves and develop in spirals. But, in regard to the concrete process of transformation, hierarchies present a unity of tile simple and the complex, the disordered and the ordered, tile rising and the falling, and forward and backward development.

In brief, the fact that the transformation of hierarchies in a system is always a cyclical and periodic process has been proved to be a universal law in the objective world. The cyclical and periodic are present in almost all phenomena, such as the rotation of the earth, and sparsity and density and the oscillation and alternation of the aggregation state of matter in cosmogony. Other examples are the Carnot cycle in physics, the periodic law in chemistry, the nuclide map in nuclear physics and chemistry, the various biological clocks in biology, the periodic changes in volcanoes in geoscience, the history of the development of human society, the processes of birth, growth and death of every society, and the process of thinking and cognition from the sensitive to the rational. All these cyclical and periodic processes must follow the law of the conservation of transformation of hierarchies in a system.


                                    III. The Level and Order Principle of Hierarchies

The world from the point of view of systems dialectics is conceived as an organism of a huge system. It is a hierarchical ordered system composed of systems of all kinds in the universe, from microcosm to macrocosm, and from an inorganic world right up to human society. All hierarchical orders have both universality and individuality. Precisely because a system is a unity of structures and functions, the hierarchical order means hierarchy in structures as well as in functions. By hierarchy in structures we understand here the result of the relative independence of elements and structure. Hierarchy in functions is generally caused by the relative independence of the function and process of motion.

Bertalanffy stressed the principle of hierarchical order, and pointed out, "A general theory of hierarchical order obviously will be a mainstay of general systems theory" (L. von Bertalanffy, General Theory of Systems, pp. 27-28). In his view, the universe is a huge hierarchy, from elementary particles to atomic nuclei, to atoms, molecules high-molecular compounds, to the wealth of structures between molecules and cells, to cells, organisms and beyond to supra-individual organizations.

Complexion, being an important concept in systems theory, refers to an existence of hierarchical orders in a system, with the upper being more complex than the lower. The higher level carries within itself certain characteristics that the lower does not have. The organizations in each hierarchical order are the unified base for all orders. Then there is a law of optimum size of an organization: the larger an organization grows, the longer the communication distance. This, depending on the nature of the organization, acts as a limiting factor and does not allow an organization to grow beyond a certain critical size.

The principle of hierarchical order reflects the universal existence of hierarchical structures in the universe. It tells us that we must pay close attention to hierarchy in structures and hierarchy in functions while analyzing an object in a system. We must also pay attention to the connection between hierarchical orders as well as the specific structure and function on each level in order to take measures to optimize a system as a whole.


                                      IV. The Principle of Hierarchical Intermedium

Intermedium, as a connecting link between objective things, exists objectively and universally, in the process of objective things, the intermedium is expressed as a connecting link in transformation or development. Engels said, "All differences become merged in intermediate steps, and all opposites pass into one another through intermediate links ... and reconcile the opposites" (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 3, p. 535). Lenin commented, "Everything is vermittelt = mediated, bound into one, connected by transitions" (V. 1. Lenin, Complete Works, Vol. 38, p. 103). He also pointed out, "If we are to have a true knowledge of an object we must look at and examine all its facets, its connections and 'mediacies'" (V. I. Lenin, Selected Works, Vol. 4, p. 453). From the above discussion it can be seen that there is an intermedium in the interaction and transformation of hierarchies. The existence, the position and the role of the intermedium help us to understand the complicated connections between hierarchies in things and refrain from the simplified trend of two aspects in the law of the unity of opposites.

All systematic structures embrace complex elements, hierarchies and intermediums. The universal existence of the systematic structure determines the universality and objectivity of the intermedium. The internal interconnection, interaction and inter-transformation that take place in the systematic structures are inseparable from the intermedium. However, the hierarchies are transformed not merely into two poles, but into multi-poles, in the law of the exchange of quality and quantity, "demarcation" is termed the connecting hierarchical level, i.e., the intermedium level. Every system has its qualitative determinant and quantitative determinant; it also has its "demarcating" determinant. The quality of any hierarchical level in a system involves a certain quantity, and the quantity involves a certain quality. Apart from that, "demarcation" is the intermedium of hierarchical level for the unity of quality and quantity. A system cannot be called a system if it only has a qualitative hierarchy and a quantitative hierarchy but lacks a demarcating hierarchy. "Demarcation" and the intermedium hierarchy in a system are the quantitative bounds retaining its quality. Certain bounds and critical points exist on two or more ends of the "demarcation'' dimension. On the hierarchical level of "demarcation," quality limits the scope and the range of quantitative change; however, the quantitative change will surely break up its qualitative limitation and overspill the quantitative bounds of qual- ity sooner or later. Meanwhile, on the hierarchical level of "demarcation" quality and quantity reciprocally connect with each other and define each other. "Demarcation" is the synergism of differences of quality and quantity.

In systems dialectics "demarcation" is conceived as an intermedium hierarchical level or intermedium system because it plays the role of a transient system in transformation from the old system to a new one. Therefore, demarcation is an indispensable link for us to understand the intermedium hierarchical level in a systematic structure and to comprehend the intrinsic quality of a system, it is also of significance for understanding the transformation occurring in the internal structures of a system, intermedium hierarchy prevails in all opposite and connected things in nature, such as vertebrates and invertebrates, fish and amphibians, birds and reptiles and the individuals and groups in lower animals, intermedium is the golden key to understanding the history of the development of human beings, the unity and opposites in nature and the interconnections among the inner hierarchies in a system. For example, in the primary stage of socialism the structure of the ownership system presents diversified features involving public, private, collective, joint-capital, cooperative and shareholding ownerships. The diversities of ownership reflect the level of development of the productive forces, in all those diversified forms of ownership some belong to socialism, and some to capitalism; some are neither a part of socialism nor of capitalism, rather, they have the nature of duality, changeability and transition. Obviously such systems of ownership are promoting the development of the productive forces, so their existences are objective and universal. All of them are intermedium, systems of ownership bridging socialism and capitalism. In the reform of the political and economic systems in China it is very important for us to discover an intermedium system which will change smoothly from the old pattern to a new one. Such an intermedium or transitional system must be a system full of vitality which conforms to the laws of the objective developments in China. in our daily life also there are boundaries or an intermedium between the advanced and the backward. Take love and hate for example. In this system of unity and opposites, there are five hierarchical levels: love, favor, indifference, repugnance and hate. From love to hate, the system goes through three intermedium levels. Most feelings expressed in daily life are on the intermedium level.

Of course, the intermedium hierarchical level does not merely involve a quantitative scope, but a three-dimensional system in which quality, quantity and order reciprocally interconnect, it involves "partial fluctuation" or "partial imbalance." Thus, if the quantitative change of things overtakes the demarcating determinant, sudden change may not take place without inducement or "fluctuation." According to the theory of stability under sudden change, under controlled conditions, if the intermedium transition through which the qualitative change takes place is unstable the qualitative change will be a sudden process; otherwise, it will be a gradual process. Thus, stability or instability in the intermedium system leads to gradual or sudden qualitative change respectively. Therefore, the nature of hierarchy in structures is the driving force of the law of the transformation of hierarchies. Hierarchy in a wholeness is a phase of transformation between hierarchies; and the intermedium hierarchy is the sole path that the birth, existence, growth and death of a system must follow.

The law of the transformation of hierarchies concerns tile fundamental differences existing in hierarchies of all complex things. It requires people to consider the specific features of hierarchical levels as well as those of adjacent levels. For example, close attention must be paid to features in hierarchical management and in hierarchical decision-making. This has great significance for us to understand and recreate the objective world both systematically and dialectically.

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Section Four
THE LAW OF DIFFERENCES SYNERGY

The law of the synergy of differences, also called the law of the self-organization of differences, is conceived as a fundamental law of the systematic material world and therefore a law in systems dialectics, it discloses the origin and the driving force of the systematic material world, which indicates that the wellsprings of the development of a system lie in the difference, synergy, concordance and self-organization of structures in a system. It also reveals the real contents of existence, interconnection and development of the systematic material world, and briefly summarizes the other laws in systems dialectics. The law of synergism of differences prevails throughout all aspects and processes of the reciprocal connections in the systematic material world, and constitutes the most essential connection among the categories in systems dialectics. Also, it expresses and reflects all categories in systems; and all categories, in return, supplement and express the law of synergism of differences.

I. The Law of Differences Synergy and
the Law of the Unity of Opposites
In systems dialectics the radical contents of the law of the unity of opposites are conceived as the foundation for the law of the synergy of differences.

According to materialistic dialectics, all things and all phe- nomena in the world interconnect and interact with each other. First of all, the whole world is a unity composed of infinitely interconnected and interconditioned things, and everything in it is an ingredient as well as a link in a unified whole. As Engels said, "Dialectics is the science of universal interconnection' (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 3, p. 521 ). Second, all things and phenomena have modes of existence in motion, flux and progress. In the world, "it reveals the transitory character of everything and in everything; nothing can endure before it except the uninterrupted process of becoming and of passing away, of endless ascendency from the lower to the higher" (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 4, p. 213). "Dialectics, i.e., the doctrine of development in its fullest, deepest and most comprehensive form ... that provides us with a reflection of eternally developing matter" (V. I. Lenin, Selected Works, Vol. 2, p. 442). Third, the essence of the connection and development of all things lies in contradiction. All things, all processes and thinking in the world are involved in and also comprehend the relations of contradiction. "Dialectics in the proper sense is the study of contradiction in the very essence of objects" (V. I. Lenin, Complete Works, Vol. 38, p. 278). Fourth, the main contents of the law of the unity of opposites are: "The division of a unity into mutually exclusive opposites and their reciprocal relationship" (Ibid., p. 408). "Between the opposites in a con- tradiction there is at once unity and struggle, and it is this that impels things to move and change" (Mao Zedong, Selected Works, Vol. V, p. 372). "The combination of conditional, relative identity and unconditional, absolute struggle constitutes the movement of opposites in all things" (Ibid., p. 307).

In systems dialectics the systematic material world is con- ceived as a body of synergy of differences or a body of the self-organization of differences. Difference is defined as distinc- tion of elements, hierarchical levels and functions in the core of the structure, in time and in space as well. Difference is the inherent self-organization mechanism for the existence of a system, the optimization of the whole and synergetic develop- ment. The development of a system is the result of the synergetic and self-organizing motion of differences in elements, the result of coupling structures and functions within a system. Difference involves and presupposes contradiction. Without differences there is no contradiction. Differences prevail throughout all aspects and the whole processes of opposites, struggle and the transformation of contradictory categories. They also prevail throughout the whole process of concordance, identity and integration of synergetic categories. Difference is universal, and contradiction is just a specific expression of difference. Similarly, the synergy o1' differences in a system is universal, and the struggle of contradictions is relative. Contradiction, as a specific phase which the development of differences must go through, can be divided into a phase of opposites, a phase of struggle and a phase of translbrmation. Difference is universal; opposition is minor and struggle is exceptional. Transformation demonstrates the death of an old qualitative form and the birth of a new qualitative form. It is the tendency or the result of development and struggle of contradictions. Difference covers internal difference and external difference. The external difference is the expression of the internal difference, and, under certain conditions, it conceals the differences existing between the intrinsic quality and structure in the system. Difference contains contradiction, but contradiction is not the same as difference. Difference is the main mode and main stage for the existence of system. Not all differences become intensified and are transformed into opposites. Differences may be synergic, integrated and identified with each other ill general conditions. Only under specific conditions may differences be intensified and turned into contradictions. Differences prevail throughout all aspects and processes of the systematic materi- al world. Difference, synergism and self-organization are the ultimate causes of development in the systematic material world.

Any system is all identity and a wholeness of differences and synergism. Differences and synergism are dialectically uni- fied with each other. Difference presupposes synergism, but the inherent differences in any system are always mutually connected and communicated with synergism. Reciprocal dependence and connection as well as reciprocal interaction and penetration coexist between differences and synergism. When a system is exchanging matter, energy and information with the external surroundings, differences and synergism are mutually transformed. Engels said, "The fact that identity contains difference within itself is expressed in every sentence, where the predicate is necessarily different from the subject" (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 3, p. 537). That provides evidence for the universality and objectivity of difference.

The law of the synergy of differences uses the principle of difference, the principle of synergism and the principle of self-organization to explain the law of motion in the systematic material world, which enriches and extends the law of the unity of opposites. According to the law of the synergy of differences, "one divides into two" should not be understood in its traditional sense; instead, it should be understood in a systematic, multi-pole, non-linear and coupling sense, in "one divides into two," "one" is the unified thing; "divides" refers to the internal occurrence of differences; and "two" refers to the two aspects, two attributes, two tendencies and the mutual connections which constitute the contradictory groups. People are used to quoting "one divides into two" to reveal the contradictions of things and the internal connections of their development. Such a concept has played a very important role in helping people understand the dialectics of contradiction. However, it fails to disclose the whole process of the development of things, and is it a scientific expression of reality. !n the law of the synergy Of differences, "one divides into two" plus "two combines into one" are a complete expression of the unity of opposites. Since , we are talking about dialectics, if we only consider "one" divides into "two" or into "many," but do not consider combining "two" into "one," or combining "many" into "a whole," then our
thought fails to conform to the objective law of development in the objective world, as well as the concept of dialectics, if we only consider "divide" without "combine," "the doctrine that everything has two aspects" will become "the doctrine that
everything has only one aspect," which must intensify all differences into contradictions. As a result, all contradictions will be in a state of contradictory, antagonistic and mortal struggle. That is the partial philosophy of struggle.

According to the law of the synergy of differences, it is possible for the systematic material world to change from general difference to struggle. Such a possibility will be fulfilled only in a combination of certain internal and external condi- tions. In reality, most differences, disparities, dissimilarities and inconsistencies are not so easily turned into the stage of opposites and struggle. Instead, the internal differences in a system are, through synergy, integration, resonance and dialogue, mainly transformed into the result of forces and the driving forces promoting the harmony and consistent development of the systematic material world. Synergism results in the result of forces and driving forces as well. The result of forces is greater than the component of forces, so the result of driving forces is much stronger than the component of driving forces. Difference is the common stage for the existence of a system, opposite is the specific stage for the development of differences, and struggle is an unusual stage for the development of differences. Difference carries within itself the opposition and struggle aspects, but that does not mean it is equal to them. The coexistence, submission, synergism and combination of differences are much more universal, objective and closer to the intrinsic quality of the systematic material world compared with its features of opposition and struggle. Differences promote concordance and synergy in the elements. For example, the Chinese slogan "compare, learn, keep pace, cooperate and surpass,'' or the sayings "draw on each other's merits" and "competition mechanism" are all concrete means to lead differences to synergism, which may result in optimization of the whole. Even for those differences which are in the stage of opposition and struggle, they may develop synergetically and in concordance with each other harmoniously following the law of the optimization of wholeness. The dialogue between the United States of America and the former Soviet Union is a good example. The law of synergism of differences is the driving force and the central law for development of a system; it is a philosophy of harmonious development for the whole of the system. "One divides into two" only considers dividing instead of combining, which makes people only see the trees without seeing the wood and see the individual without seeing the universal, see the part without seeing the whole, and only stresses struggle instead of synergism. The "cultural revolution"(1966-1976) in China was the result of such a theory. Therefore, in systems dialectics the philosophy of the synergism of differences and the philosophy of harmonic development has much more strength and vitality, and can reflect more properly the intrinsic attributes of the systematic material world compared with the struggle philoso- phy of "one divides into two" or the philosophy of contradiction and opposites.

According to the law of the synergism of differences, the system has modes of existence in symmetry and asymmetry as well, no matter whether it is the material or the metaphysical world, microcosm or macrocosom, a living or a non-living body. Positive and negative numbers and electricity, the North Pole and the South Pole, action and reaction, all are the dual sym- metries in a system. Generally speaking, there are a great many similar symmetries in the world. It is due to the limitation of scientific cognition that for a long time people only paid attention to the law of the unity of the opposites in which dual symmetries are the main contradictions. It must be admitted that this point still has its scientific value at present. But we ,have to see that the symmetric connections in system are manifold, such as, tri-symmetry (three colors of light) and multi-symmetry (the periodic chart of chemical elements, in which there is an eight-sided symmetry). As for concrete ob- jects, there also exist various symmetries within them. For example, most symmetries in a crystal are triple, quadruple or oetuple; most inflorescent plants have quintuple symmetry; the elementary particles and atomic nuclei have multi-symmetry; the four kinds of nucleotides (A, I, C, G) have quadruple symmetry; and the human body has both binary symmetry and quintuple symmetry (such as the human fingers). So, apart from the law of the unity of binary opposites and the thinking method, there should be a synergism of multiple differences and thinking methods. That is the substratum for systematic thinking, and it is also a law and a thinking method which may be understood and formed only when human thinking has pro- gressed to a certain stage. The modern sciences have turned from studying symmetrical systems to studying asymmetrical ~ systems. This concept also concerns the scope of application and limitation of binary logic: "true" or "false." Following binary logic, a proposition can be either true or false. But in reality it may be neither, but a third possibility "intermedium," the "multiple" or "multi-factors." Because of the complexity of the systematic material world there are simple binary
linear systems of the unity of opposites as well as the multiple non-linear systems of synergism of differences. We cannot say that the formal logic and the law of the "unity of binary opposites" are out of date, or the wholeness of multi-elements and the method of systematic thinking constitute the only correct thinking method, since their scopes of application are quite different. Their relationships are just like that between elementary arithmetic and higher mathematics. The law of the
synergism of differences in systems dialectics can explain the complexion of the material world, and illustrate either the
simple binary linear system of the unity of opposites or the multiple non-linear system of the synergism of differences.
Therefore, it is a more complete theory than all the rest.

According to the law of the synergism of differences, the proposition that motion and struggle are absolute, and that
stability and unity are relative is correct, but this is merely the basic content of the law of the unity of opposites, not the complete contents of materialistic dialectics. Lenin said, "The difference between the relative and the absolute is itself relative'' (V. I. Lenin, Philosophical Notebooks, p. 408). Only when describing the combined method of the two aspects in the contradictory attributes (struggle as well as unity), can it be said that identity is relative and struggle is absolute. However, absolute struggle resides in relative identity, which forms a kind of connection between them. Therefore, both identity and struggle play the same roles in the process of development of things, and their differences are relative. Stalin said that everything changes with condition, place and time. There exist no abstract or absolute things in the world, either in a material system or in an ideal system. Things, processes and systems all carry within themselves an absolute aspect and a relative aspect as well as a mutually transforming aspect. So they are both absolute as well as relative. They have a day of birth, and they must inevitably have a day of death, but the most important thing is that they have a long process of growth from birth to death. It is the same with human beings, with the earth and even with the solar system.

For anything, it is not enough to admit only two aspects: birth and death; the most important thing is to recognize the aspects of progress and transformation, in studying birth and death, special attention should be given to the study of the rationality, stability and optimization of existence. That is where systems dialectics enriches and extends materialistic dia- lectics.

In systems dialectics the evolution and development of things are conceived as systematic evolution. The following are its main causes:

First of all, since matter, energy and information are always exchanged in a system, the inherent fluctuation continuously adapts to and identifies with the fluctuation of random factors in the environment, which then leads to synergetic amplification of internal fluctuation. As a result, the disordered structures in a system are transformed into a self-organizing aptitude of the ordered structure in the system. The main reason why the old qualitative form of a system changes into a new qualitative form lies in the random fluctuations of inherent and external factors in the system. The random, non-linear and coupling fluctuations are the essential cause of the evolution of a system. Therefore, it is called random evolution.

Second, reciprocal actions and connections between the inherent factors in the system inevitably have a process of change and development. With the impact of external conditions, when the changes in quality, quantity and order of elements arrive at a certain threshold value, qualitative change takes place, forcing the old qualitative form of system to transform into a new qualitative form. The impact of external conditions and the quantitative change of the inherent factors are the cause, and qualitative change and the evolution of a system are the effect. This is called causal evolution.

Third, all systems have an obvious tendency to develop from the disordered to the ordered or self-organization, i.e., from a simple process to a complex one. Through regulating its organization and structures, the system can acclimatize itself to the changes of its environment in order to survive. Such an evolution of the system is determined by the sudden qualitative change of the authigenesis of self-organization and the initial conditions of its autonomy. The goal of the system is fulfilled through system activity, which is called the evolution of teleology. The evolution of teleology helps the system achieve steady evolution, i.e., selective evolution.

From the above discussion it can be seen that the causes of systematic evolution have the nature of being random, causal and objective. These three driving causes are comprehensively expressed as the dialectical synergism of differences, the synergy and competitiveness (or struggle) in a system, or it can be said that the evolution is the result of synergism and competition. Therefore, we take the randomness, the cause and effect, and the objectiveness as the ultimate cause of the evolution of a system, i.e., "the core of the driving cause." It is of methodological and epistemological significance for us to use "the core of the driving cause" to analyze and understand the cause of a system's evolution, and to study the mechanism of evolution in a system, too.

In the evolution of differences in a system it is very important to comprehend the mutual relationship between synergism and competition. The two are interdependent and contradict each other. Synergism is based on competition, and vice versa, which means competition is under the direction of synergism, and synergism is the basis of competition. Competition has a dual nature: On the one hand it causes selfexhaustion, and negatively amplifies entropy in a system; on the o